Neuroanatomy

1. Basics of Neuroanatomy

• Define CNS (brain, brainstem, cerebellum, spinal cord) and PNS (dorsal and ventral roots, peripheral nerves).
• Distinguish grey matter (cell bodies, dendrites) from white matter (axons) in both CNS and PNS.
• Understand tracts, fasciculi, funiculi, nuclei, cortex—their structure and functional relevance.
• Identify fibre types: association (within hemisphere), commissural (between hemispheres), projection (to brainstem/spinal cord).
• Describe brainstem components (midbrain, pons, medulla), and recognise gyri and sulci features.

2. Cells and Components of the Nervous System

• Understand that the CNS comprises neurones and supportive glial cells.
• Describe the roles of astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia.
• Explain the structure and function of the blood–brain barrier (BBB).
• Identify main neurotransmitter classes: amino acids, biogenic amines, and peptides.
• Recognise examples of key neurotransmitters: glutamate, GABA, dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin, acetylcholine, substance P.

3. Arterial Supply to the Brain

• Understand how the brain is supplied with the vast supply of oxygen it requires.
• Know the anatomy of the arterial supply of the brain, including which vessels supply which areas of the brain and the basics of how a blockage in one of these arteries may manifest clinically.

4. Development of the Nervous System

• Understand how the nervous system develops and how this links to function.
• Be aware of some conditions caused by errors in nervous system development.

5. Production and Circulation of CSF and Related Disorders

• Understand cerebrospinal fluid origin, composition, functions including cushioning and metabolic support.
• Identify choroid plexus production within the brain’s ventricular system.
• Trace CSF flow: lateral → third → fourth ventricles, then subarachnoid space.
• Recognise drainage via central canal, foramina of Luschka and Magendie, plus arachnoid granulations.
• Appreciate CSF’s protective and metabolic roles in brain and spinal cord physiology.

6. Somatosensory System

• Understand seven somatosensory modalities: temperature, pain, pressure, vibration, fine touch, proprioception, two-point discrimination.
• Explain receptive fields: size determines acuity; overlap lowers discriminative precision.
• Describe adaptation: rapidly adapting vs slowly adapting receptors and their signal-frequency changes.
• Recognise pathway organisation: first-order in dorsal root ganglion; second-order decussate; third-order to cortex.
• Differentiate pathways: spinothalamic (pain, temperature, pressure) vs dorsal column-medial lemniscus (fine touch, vibration).

7. Motor System

• Understand difference between upper motor neurones (UMNs) and lower motor neurones (LMNs)
• Describe LMN signs: weakness, areflexia, muscle wasting, hypotonia, fasciculations
• Explain UMN pathway: cortex → internal capsule → medulla decussation → spinal cord ventral horn
• Identify UMN lesion features: hyperreflexia, hypertonia, extensor plantar reflexes
• Recognise primitive spinal reflexes and spinal shock effects after UMN injury

8. The Cerebellum: Circuits, Coordination and Clinical Signs

• Trace cerebellar inputs, cortical microcircuits and deep-nuclear outputs to explain error correction, motor learning and clinical signs.

9. Visual System

• Understand anatomy of visual pathway: retina, optic nerve, chiasm, tract, radiations, visual cortex.
• Describe visual field mapping and interpretation in lesion localisation.
• Recognise common visual pathway lesions: hemianopia, quadrantanopia, optic neuritis.
• Explain pupillary light reflex and its neural circuitry components.
• Apply basic neuro-ophthalmic examination techniques: visual acuity, field testing, fundoscopy.

10. Auditory and Vestibular Systems

• Use hair-cell transduction to connect cochlear tonotopy, central hearing pathways, vestibular sensors and the vestibulo-ocular reflex.

11. The Hypothalamus and Limbic System

• Integrate hypothalamic set-point control with limbic emotion, memory and reward through clear nuclei, pathways and output maps.

12. Higher Cortical Function

• Understand cortical regions: prefrontal, parietal, temporal, occipital lobes and their higher functions.
• Describe executive functions: planning, decision‑making, inhibition control, working memory.
• Recognise language centres: Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas, and associated disorders (aphasia).
• Explain spatial processing: parietal contributions to visuospatial skills and neglect syndromes.
• Apply clinical assessment: cognitive testing for executive function, language, and spatial deficits.

13. Reticular Formation

• Describe the anatomical location and subdivisions (raphe, medial, lateral nuclei) of reticular formation.
• Explain its roles in arousal, sleep-wake cycles, consciousness, and filtering sensory stimuli.
• Understand descending reticulospinal tracts: posture, muscle tone, autonomic regulation.
• Recognise ascending reticular activating system: cortical activation, alertness, response to relevant stimuli.
• Appreciate clinical consequences of damage: coma, disrupted sleep, autonomic dysfunction.

14. Movement Disorders

• Define major movement disorder types: parkinsonism, tremor, chorea, dystonia, myoclonus, tics.
• Describe basal ganglia circuitry dysfunction underlying movement disorders.
• Recognise key clinical features and phenomenology of common movement disorders.
• Explain basic neuropsychiatric aspects associated with movement disorders.
• Outline general diagnostic approaches and differential diagnosis strategies.
• Summarise primary treatment options and management principles.

• Be able to differentiate meningitis, encephalitis and other CNS infections by presentation
• Be able to outline initial investigations (including CSF) and interpret key findings
• Be able to describe immediate management, empiric therapy and complication prevention

16. Dementia

• Define dementia and distinguish major types like Alzheimer’s, vascular, Lewy body, frontotemporal.
• Describe key neuroanatomical changes in dementia (e.g., hippocampal atrophy, cortical degeneration).
• Recognise clinical features: memory, executive function, behavioural and psychiatric symptoms.
• Outline basic diagnostic approach including cognitive testing and neuroimaging indications.
• Summarise general management strategies: pharmacological treatments and supportive care principles.

17. Delirium

• Define delirium as an acute disturbance in attention, awareness and cognition.
• Identify key risk factors predisposing to delirium development.
• Recognise core clinical features including inattention, disorientation, psychomotor changes and perceptual disturbances.
• Distinguish delirium from dementia, depression and psychosis by onset and symptom fluctuations.
• Describe basic diagnostic evaluation including screening tools and investigations.
• Outline general prevention and management: treat underlying causes, non‑pharmacological care, and cautious medication use.

18. Headaches

• Define headaches and differentiate between primary and secondary headache disorders.
• Describe common primary headache types: tension‑type, migraine, cluster, and their presumed pathophysiology.
• Recognise key clinical features distinguishing headache subtypes: pain pattern, duration, associated symptoms.
• Identify red‑flag symptoms indicating potential secondary headache requiring urgent investigation.
• Outline general management principles: acute treatments, preventive strategies and lifestyle modification.

19. Stroke

• Define stroke types: ischaemic, haemorrhagic, and other causes including TIA.
• List modifiable versus non-modifiable risk factors for ischaemic and haemorrhagic stroke.
• Identify classic brain artery territories: ACA, MCA, PCA, brainstem, cerebellar, basilar.
• Recognise stroke symptoms by arterial territory: weakness, speech disturbance, visual field, neglect.
• Understand stroke classifications: Oxford/Bamford (TACS, PACS, POCS, LACS) to guide prognosis.

20. Raised Intracranial Pressure (ICP)

• Define raised intracranial pressure (ICP) and normal pressure parameters.
• Explain Monro–Kellie doctrine balancing CSF, blood, and brain volumes.
• Recognise clinical signs: headache, vomiting, papilloedema, ocular palsies, altered consciousness.
• Describe Cushing’s triad physiology: hypertension, bradycardia, abnormal respiration.
• Outline key management principles: treating cause, head elevation, osmotherapy, ventilation support.

21. Subarachnoid Haemorrhage

• Define subarachnoid haemorrhage and recognise it as a neurological emergency
• Describe common traumatic and aneurysmal causes and key risk factors
• Explain early brain injury and delayed cerebral ischaemia mechanisms
• Recognise classic presentation: thunder-clap headache, vomiting, seizures, neck stiffness, reduced consciousness
• Outline urgent diagnostics: non-contrast CT, cerebral angiography and lumbar puncture sequencing
• Summarise acute management including nimodipine, monitoring, aneurysm coiling or clipping to prevent re-bleed

22. Anxiety

• Define anxiety and describe its adaptive role and typical physical symptoms
• Explain limbic system structures, stress response stages, and neurotransmitters in anxiety
• Identify medical conditions mimicking anxiety and classify risk factors: predisposing, precipitating, perpetuating
• Describe features and management of generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder
• Recognise social and specific phobias and evidence-based therapies, including exposure and CBT
• Distinguish OCD and PTSD from acute stress reaction; outline key treatments, including EMDR

23. Mood Disorders

• Define depression, mania, hypomania, and diagnostic criteria for bipolar disorder
• List risk factors and precipitating factors for depressive episodes
• Distinguish adjustment reactions from clinical depression based on duration and biological symptoms
• Recognise hallmark features of manic and hypomanic episodes
• Describe limbic, frontal, basal ganglia involvement and key neurotransmitters in mood regulation
• Summarise pharmacological and supportive management for depression and bipolar disorder

24. Psychosis

• Define psychosis and key symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, poor insight
• Identify organic causes requiring exclusion before diagnosing functional psychosis
• Recognise schizophrenia risk factors and Schneider’s First Rank psychotic symptoms
• Explain dopamine and autoimmune hypotheses underlying schizophrenia pathophysiology
• Outline antipsychotic treatment: typical versus atypical, mechanisms and side effects
• Distinguish drug-induced, affective, and post-partum psychoses and their clinical significance